Indus Valley Civilization
Science & Technology
Astronomy
1.
They were aware of directions given they had trade
routes, their dead were buried in N-S
directions, their town planning made use of
directions etc. So they must have used astronomical bodies to gauge
direction.
2.
Recently observatories were excavated from Lothal and
Dholavira.
Medical Science
1.
They were aware of surgery as evidence of skull surgery
has been found from Kalibangan and Lothal.
Chemical Science
1.
They used different colors on their pots.
Mathematics
1.
Weights and measures of specific standards were used.
2.
The brisk trade indicates some knowledge of basic
mathematics.
Metallurgy
1.
Bronze working + copper, gold, silver and tin
working.
Civil Engineering
1.
They constructed public buildings, embankments, drains,
used burnt bricks.
2.
They knew the technique of water-proofing.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Industry: Seal making, precious
stone working, bead making and terracotta making were quite advanced.
2.
Agriculture: They used to plough
their fields with wooden ploughs as is evident from terracotta plough figurines
from Banwali. Plough furrows discovered in Kalibangan. They also had irrigation
and water conduits (underground in some areas) and small scale inundation canals
(to lead the water where desired) have been found.
Architecture
Features
1.
Used permanent material on a large scale: In
villages mud bricks were used with stone being used in foundations and drains.
In cities, burnt bricks were used. In Kutch, stones were used on a large scale.
2.
Planned: The bricks were laid
in English bond style. The bricks had standard
ratio. There is no correlation between planning and size of the
settlement.
3.
Technical knowhow: They
knew the technique of water-proofing. Houses had separate bathrooms near the
well and the bathing area was sloping towards the drain and water-proof.
4.
Secular.
5.
House structure: Houses sizes differ from
large to small ones. People generally lived in houses with a central courtyard
and rooms surrounding it. Doors and windows opened in side streets not the main
street. There were double storied houses and staircases as well. Doors were
sometimes painted or carved.
Monuments
1.
Cities were fortified. They had well laid out roads and
drains.
2.
Great bath, assembly hall, granaries.
Pillars
1.
Remains of stone pillars have been found from
Dholavira.
Paintings
1.
They used to paint the outer side of their pots with
geometrical designs, birds, animals etc. The outer surface of their pots used
to be red on which paintings were made in black.
Sculpture
1.
They made use of metal, alloys, stones and terracotta
figurines. Terracotta masks and faience bangles were also made.
2.
The images were both secular and religious in nature.
Examples are numerous terracotta figurines of mother goddess, animals etc., the
bearded priest, the bronze dancing girl, the red torso etc.
Music & Dance
1.
The statue of dancing girl shows they were aware of music
and dance.
2.
Images of a stringed musical instrument too have been
found on some pots.
Pottery
1.
The pottery was black-on-red ware where both inner and
outer surfaces were red. On the outer red surface, designs of birds,
animals, geometry were painted in black color.
2.
The rims of the pots are strong to help in lifting them
and moving around. The bottom portion has additional clay as well.
Vedic Age
Science & Technology
Astronomy
1.
Various astronomical bodies like sun, moon, jupiter,
venus, mars, saturn are mentioned in Vedas but perhaps their astronomical
significance was missing and they were more for astrological / religious
use.
Medical Science
1.
The system of Ayurveda emerged in this age.
Chemical Science
1.
They knew fermentation techniques and made somaras.
2.
They knew tanning of leather.
3.
They used different colors on pots.
Mathematics
1.
Fire altars.
Metallurgy
1.
Technique of bronze making and later iron making were
present.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Industry: Carpentry and chariot
making were advanced professions.
Architecture
Monuments
1.
Vedic texts contain references of huge palaces of kings
but no such imposing structures have been found.
2.
Wood, mud bricks and thatched roofs were used.
Stupas
1.
The term stupa has been referred to in Rig Veda but not
in the context as we know it. The term then referred to the fire coming out of
the sacrificial altar.
Paintings
1.
They used to paint their pots. The outer surface of the
pots was grey on which they painted floral and geometrical designs.
2.
On the grey surface, blue color was used to make the
designs.
Dance & Music
1.
Music witnessed progress in the form of the hymns of Sam
Veda.
Pottery
1.
PGW was the distinctive pottery. It was coarse with
medium fabric. The outside surface was grey on which blue floral and
geometrical designs were made.
Pre-Mauryan Age
Science & Technology
Astronomy
1.
Astrological charts etc. were prepared.
Medical Science
1.
Taxila was a famous centre of medical
science. Aitraya was a famous teacher there.
2.
Bimbisara's personal doctor Dhanvantri was a famous
doctor.
Chemical Science
1.
The polish of NBPW was very glossy. The method to make
this polish is also described in detail in contemporary works.
Mathematics
1.
Sulvasutra is a text on geometry. It talks about circles,
triangles, squares and rectangles. It tells how to make a circle equal in area
to a square or a rectangle.
Civil Engineering
1.
We find evidences of fortifications and
embankments.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Agriculture & industry: The
use of iron became widespread.
2.
Trade: Punched marked coins
came into existence. They along with NBPW distribution help us in tracking the
trade routes of the age.
Architecture
Features
1.
Wood, mud-bricks, thatched roofs etc. were used.
2.
Stone fortifications were also used.
Monuments
1.
We find evidences of wooden palisade in PP. Stone
fortifications existed in Rajgir and Licchavi republic.
Dance & Music
1.
They were patronized by the court which maintained
courtesans. Amrapali was a famous courtesan in Licchavi.
Sculpture
1.
There is a reference in King Kharvela's Hathigumpha
inscription that Nanda king took away a jina image when he conquered
Kalinga.
Pottery
1.
The distinctive pottery of the age was NBPW. It was
highly glossy, medium to fine fabric and would have been used by rich.
Mauryan Age
Architecture
Features
1.
Stone masonry reached new heights.
2.
Shining polish of NBPW was also applied to the stone
pillars.
3.
Permanent material like burnt bricks, stone began to be
used again along with wood. It enabled them to construct larger and
durable structure which made denser habitations possible and hence growth of
towns and spread of Mauryan culture.
4.
Ring wells were another distinct feature. Water could be
stored in these and also they could be used for sanitation. Hence it became
possible to have denser habitations farther away from the rivers.
5.
It was both religious and secular in character.
6.
It was pan-Indian in character.
7.
Art and architecture received court patronage. Private
merchants ad craftsmen also donated for religious causes.
8.
Large monuments show that architecture was
technologically advanced.
Foreign (Iranian) Influence on Mauryan Architecture
(a) Similarities
1.
There are similarities between CGM's palace and Darius'.
2.
Both Asokan and Archimidean pillars use stone, glossy
polish and have a bell shaped part. Because the Archimidean pillars were older,
the concept of pillars itself was borrowed by Asoka from Iran.
(b) Differences
1.
CGM's palace was made of wood but Darius' palace was made
of stone.
2.
In pillars, the shaft of Asokan pillars is monolithic
whereas the Archimidean pillars have joints.
3.
The shaft of Asokan pillars tapers from bottom to top
whereas Archimidean pillars are cylindrical.
4.
The shaft of Asokan pillars is smooth whereas
that of Archimidean pillars has got grooves.
5.
Asokan pillars are erected without any support base
whereas Archimidean pillars have a support base.
6.
The bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is at top while
that in Archimidean pillars is at bottom. In reality, the so called bell shaped
part of Asokan pillars is an inverted lotus.
7.
The Asokan pillars were not a part of any other
structure. The purpose behind their construction was to engrave instructions
and carry them fat. But Archimidean pillars were part of palace and their
job was to support the roof.
8.
The Asokan pillars have capitals which have sculptures of
lions, elephants and bulls. But the Archimidean pillars have no capitals and
only images of humans are engraved on their shafts.
9.
The gloss polish was known to Indians from NBPW
independent of Iran.
Monuments
1.
Stone masonry was introduced on a wide scale. The palace
of CGM at Kumrahar (Patna) had 80 stone pillars.
2.
During Asokan time, the tradition of wooden arch gave way
to stone arch.
Pillars
1.
Asokan pillars made use of white spotted red sandstone in
Mathura and grey colored sandstone in Chunar and were monolith in
style. Only their capitals in form of lions, elephants and bulls were
joined from the top.
Stone polishing was as shiny as NBPW.
Caves
1.
The practice of cutting caves into rocks began with the
Lomarishi caves in Barabar hills and also Nagarjuni Hills which were
donated to Ajivika sect. These caves, however, were simple and
without much ornamentation. But their gates were carved out as if wooden.
Stupas
1.
Initially stupas were Buddha's relic places. Then it got
extended to his followers as well and gradually stupa itself became an object
of worship. According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka built 84K stupas.
2.
Some stupas have been found in Sanchi, Sarnath,
Deorkothar, Lumbini. Huen Tsang mentions seeing stupas at Tamralipti,
Karnasuvarna, Samtata.
Painting
1.
63 rock shelters have been found in Deorkothar (Rewa, MP)
with paintings. One of them had a painting of stupa and a tree together
enclosed in a railing.
Dance & Music
1.
It was patronized by the court and courtesans were
maintained by the court.
2.
Nuts, acrobats, singers, musicians, dancers lived in the
society and entertained the public specially on fairs and festivals.
Sculpture
1.
Multiple images of the folk deities such as yaksha and yakshini and
animals such as elephants have been found from Parkham (Mathura) and PP.
2.
The capitals of Asokan pillars were beautiful carved
images and were added later to the top of the pillars.
3.
From Dhauli (Odisha), rock sculpture of front part of an
elephant has been made. It looks like the elephant is in forward motion and is
coming out of the rock.
4.
A naked and headless torso of a jina tirthankara has
been recovered from Lohanipur (Patna). This is the earliest Jaina image
found.
Pottery
1.
NBPW continued.
The Leisurely Activities
1.
Fairs and festivals were organized where magicians,
acrobats, dancers, musicians and actors performed.
2.
Bull fights, chariot races, horse races and elephant
fights, hunting were popular sport.
3.
Both men and women wore ornaments.
4.
Courtesans were maintained in the royal court.
Science & Technology
Chemical Science
1.
The glossy polish of NBPW continued. In addition,
the glossy polish appeared on Asokan pillars.
Civil Engineering
1.
Use of burnt bricks and ring wells.
2.
Stone masonry reached new heights.
3.
Palaces were constructed. Sudarshan lake was built.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Trade: There was great
development in means of transport as is evident from the transportation of
Asokan pillars.
Post-Mauryan Age (North India)
Architecture
Features
1.
Burnt bricks were now used for flooring and tiles for
both flooring and
roofing. This was of indigenous origin.
Temples
1.
Hindu temples followed 3 main architectural designs -
oblong, apsidal or square. Examples of oblong are Vishnu temple @
Besnagar, Siva and Vishnu temples @ Dangwada, Vishnu temple @ Nagari. Examples
of apsidal are Lakshmi temple @ Atiranjikhera, Matrikas and Naga temples @
Sonkh. Example of square temple is Siva temple @ Gudimallam. Nagarjunkonda
contains temples of all three types.
2.
In the oblong temples, there were 2 ellipse. The main
shrine was in the inner ellipse which was separated from the outer ellipse by a
gap which usually was the circumambulatory path. The outer ellipse had
rectangular projection leading out to the entrance. The temple usually had a
plinth made of bricks or mud or stones and the superstructure was made of wood
and mud. The temples were usually east facing.
3.
The apsidal temples had apsidal rooms, plinths of brick
or mud or stone and superstructure of wood and mud.
4.
The Nagarjunkonda temples apart from having all three
designs, sometimes had multiple shrines in which case each shrine had a mandapa
(pillared hall) too. The pillars were made of stone and brick was used for the
temple superstructure.
Caves
(a) Evolution of Buddhist Cave Architecture
1.
Phase 1: It began with the
construction of Lomarishi and Sudama caves in Barabar Hills by Asoka. These
were simple caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There
was one large rectangular room followed by a smaller circular room.
2.
Phase 2: The second stage (100
BC) showed up at Konditve. The cave was cut perpendicular to the rock face and
the inner room now contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path around
it.
3.
Phase 3: The next stage was
when rows of pillars were built parallel to the walls creating a
circumambulatory passage right after entering. The central roof was high,
vaulted and side roof was low and half-vaulted. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves
are examples. Sometimes cells, rock cut beds were cut around the central hall.
An example is Bedsa caves.
4.
Phase 4: During the
Kshatrap-Satvahna kings, caves got royal patronage and became more elaborate
and ornamented. The basic features of previous phase continued. A
variety of mithun couples were carved on
the gates, the pillars came to have elaborate capitals, the side roof became
flat. Multi-storied caves came up. Double storied viharas came up at Karle and
triple storied at Ajanta. Other examples are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri
caves, Pitalkhora.
(b) Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves
1.
Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut
but not good for sculpting. But Buddhist caves were cut into hard rocks and
were better for sculpting.
2.
The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut
shrines. Later, however, some cells were enlarged into shrines. The Buddhist
caves on the other hand had clear halls and the shrine area.
3.
The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock
permitted. There was no planning. The Buddhist cave structure on the other hand
was well laid out.
4.
The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism
of jina monks. The cells were tiny (not tall enough to stand, not long enough
to stretch while sleeping, small entrances so as to bend very low). The only
luxury was occasional shelves cut into rocks and sloping floor acting as a
pillow but actually designed to keep of water from accumulating. Only the outer
portions were carved sometimes. The Buddhist caves on the other hand were an
elaborate and spacious affair.
5.
The Jina caves are of two types - those without pillars
in verandah or those with pillars. Without pillars had cells cut along three
sides of the verandah. Pillars were square at top and bottom and octagonal at
middle.
6.
In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar
motifs like animals, plants. The honeysuckle style is similar too. Examples of
such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.
Stupas
1.
New large stupas were built. The new stupas had a
circumambulatory path, a stone railing around it, two staircases leading up to
it, the summit and a stone umbrella over it. The entire structure was
enclosed in stone railings and toran-dwars on all four sides. Sculpture
decoration was found on the railings and the gateways. Examples are the stupas
at Sanchi, Bharhut, Nagarjunkonda, Amrawati.
2.
Most earlier stupas used to have a solid core. However, a
transition was made towards having a spoke wheel plan at the centre made of
bricks and the spaces filled with mud. Spoked wheel is a symbol of Buddha's
first sermon. Bhattiprolu stupa (200 BC) is from intermediate phase having
central wheel plan (no spokes).
3.
In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised
platform, 5 free standing pillars were erected. These represent the 5
important events in Buddha's life - birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first
sermon, death.
4.
Jaina stupa is also found in Kankali @ Mathura
which is called Devanirmit Stupa.
Pillars
1.
The Besnagar pillar erected by the Greek ambassador
Heliodorus is an example. He was an ambassador to the Sunga king. Its shaft
contains 4 parts and it has an inverted lotus and a capital.
Pottery
1.
The pottery was red ware, both plain and polished with
fine and medium
fabric. The red pottery was of Central Asian origin.
2.
Sprinklers and spouted channels are the distinctive pots
of this age.
Sculpture
Image Worship
1.
The tradition of image worship became popular and
numerous idols were made. Images of yaksha have been found from Pawaya,
Besnagar which represents Kuber. Colossal images of yakshas and yakshis were
built in Mathura which disappeared later as the religion got absorbed into the
dominant religion. Naga images have been found at Mathura and Karimnagar.
Gaja-Lakshmi stone plaque from Atiranjikhera and mukhalinga from Gudimallam are
another examples. In Buddhism, earlier the tradition of image worship was
absent and instead symbols of Buddha were worshipped along with the stupa. Now
images began to be built.
2.
Terracotta images were made and Chandraketugarh, Mathura
emerged as great centers.
Buddhist Relief Sculpture
1.
The railings and gateways of Buddhist structures were
elaborately worked upon. Human bodies along with animals, birds and others came
up. The landscape didn't form a background but was very much a part of the
sculpture.
2.
The sculpture was mainly meant to be seen from one side
as against the Mauryan sculpture which was same as viewed from any side.
3.
The sculpture was narratory in nature. It narrated
incidents from Buddha's life and Jatak stories. Sometimes these narrations were
just one single screenshot of a story or sometimes it was a continuous
narration of a sequence of events with one scene merging seamlessly into the
next.
4.
It made use of symbols to tell the stories. Example,
wheel for first sermon, birth of buddha as Maya sitting on a lotus,
enlightenment as bodhi tree.
5.
The Buddhist sculpture also drew heavily from other
religious traditions. For example, anthromorphs (of copper hoards), yaksha,
yakshis, nagas, pipal, animals etc.
The Gandhara School
1.
This school emerged from 1 cent BC onwards. It was not patronized by Indo-Greeks but by Sakas and Kushanas.
Hadda and Bamiyan were main centers.
2.
This was a fusion of Greek and Indian styles from the
very beginning. The subjects were Indians and the style was Greco-Roman. Thus
the mother of Buddha resembled a Greek goddess while Buddha himself too had an
Apollo like face. Greek gods were depicted as paying obeisance to Buddha.
3.
The Buddha of this school is depicted with focus on
bodily features such as muscular body, curly hair and semi-transparent
clothes.
4.
Initially they used soft material such as wood and
stucco. Later they began to use blue-grey stone.
The Mathura School
1.
It was the oldest and flourished from 2 cent BC onwards.
It was indigenous in origin and was patronized by local rulers. But later with
the advent of Kushanas, foreign influence was visible
clearly.
2.
Initial subjects were Buddha, Mahavira and Kanishka.
Krishna was ignored before the Gupta period. Beautiful images of Siva as ardh-nari-ishwar were built. Krishna, balram and
Surya too were its subjects.
3.
The images have a deep spiritual outlook. Buddha is shown
in meditation mode. Focus is not on highlighting the bodily features of
Buddha but on his spiritualistic aura and content on face. Popular depictions
of Buddha are in the Padmasana-mudra (sitting
crossed legged and meditating) and Dharma-Chakra-Parivartana-Mudra (giving
sermons).
4.
They used white spotted red sandstone.
The Amrawati / Vengi School
1.
It flourished from 1 cent BC onwards in Vengi,
Nagarjunkonda, Kurnool and Krishna - Godavari region.
2.
It was indigenous throughout and was patronized by
Satvahnas, Ikshavakus and later Vakatakas.
3.
It made images of Buddha and brahmanical deities.
4.
These images are famous for their feminine beauty and
sensuous appeal.
5.
They used white marble in their images.
Drama
1.
The Greeks introduced the curtain in Indian drama.
Painting
1.
The cave paintings of Ajanta began in this period. They
were Buddhist in character.
Science & Technology
Astronomy
1.
Indian astronomy and astrology drew a great deal from the
Greeks including the term horasastra (astrology
in Sanskrit) itself from Greek term horoscope. The names
of seven days and the zodiac signs all come from Greeks.
Medical Science
1.
Charak belonged to this period and was associated
with Taxilla school of medicine.
2.
We find many brahmanical texts on medicine written which
could have obviously been written by those who had a formal education and yet
brahmanical literature places medical practitioners at low level. Thus despite
the theoretically low level the social utility of such professions was high
enough to warrant formal education and medical practice. Veterinary sciences
developed and books on horses and elephants were written (obviously driven by
military needs).
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Industry: Leather
shoes, glass making (due to contact with Romans).
2.
Trade: The Greek coins were a
great improvement over the ill-designed punch marked coins. Pliny tells us that
Indian ships were 75 tonnes and some other sources tell us they could carry 700
persons.
3.
Agriculture: A hydraulic lift has
been found in Sringverapura which may not have been used for irrigation per se
but the technology for moving water by varying the water levels may have been
derived from or influenced irrigation. We also find the use of wheel to draw
water from the well. The literature as well as inscription provide ample
evidence of tanks, wells and embankments.
Metallurgy
1.
Indian iron and steel technologies made rapid
advancements and large number of iron implements were made which were even
exported to Abyssinian ports.
Civil Engineering
1.
The Sudarshan lake was repaired by Rudradaman.
2.
Cave architecture progressed, highly ornamented multi
storied viharas were built.
Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)
Architecture
Use of Burnt Bricks and Tiles
1.
From Peddabankur (Karimnagar), we have found use of flat
baked bricks, perforated roof tiles and 22 brick wells. This facilitated
dense habitation as it addressed the issues of sanitation, drinking water and
durability of structures.
Fortifications
1.
The Satvahna towns were fortified. Pliny talks of over 30
walled towns.
Caves
1.
The tradition of cutting into rocks reached new heights
under Satvahnas. It became associated wit Buddhism and many chaityas (shrines) and viharas (monasteries) were cut out in
rocks. Famous chaitya is at Karle and viharas at Nasik. Chaitya was a
large hall with a number of pillars. Vihara was a large hall which was entered
by a door which separated it from the verandah in front.
Stupas
1.
Famous stupas are at Amaravati
and Nagarjunkonda.
Sangam States in Tamil Land
Literature
1.
The Sangam texts are the most
important pieces of work. They were composed by brahmans of Prakrit-Sanskrit
learning.
2.
Tamil text Tolkkapiyam deals with grammar and poetics
and Tirukkal with philosophy. Then there are
epics Silappadikaran and Manimekalai. Silappadikaran
was written by a Jaina scholar and is a love story of a dignitary preferring a
courtesan over his wife. Manimekalai is the adventure story of his daughter.
These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of the Sangam
age.
Gupta Age
Religious Practices
1.
Idol worship reached its true
popularity in this age. The agricultural festivals were also given much of
their religious color and fanfare in this age.
Paintings
1.
The greatest specimen of
Buddhist art in Gupta times is the Ajanta cave paintings. They were built from
a period spanning from 1 cent to 7 cent AD. But most work was done in Gupta
age. They depict various scenes from the life of Buddha and his previous births. They are life-like, natural and have brilliant colors even after all these centuries.
Ajanta paintings were dominated by buddha, bodhistava, jatak stories, natural
scenery, animals etc.
But it cannot be said that Guptas patronized these paintings.
2.
Even though the theme is
religious in most paintings, we also find a glimpse of the lives of the
princes, kings, samantas etc. in them. But there is no reflection of the common
man's life in these paintings. In this way they reflect the contemporary
society and its values as well.
3.
Bagha paintings have a
materialistic theme and tell us about the contemporary clothing style, hair
styles, makeup, ornaments etc. Bagha paintings were made in Gupta period only
as against the Ajanta paintings which were spread over multiple periods. So
they have more uniformity. They also have more secular theme and scenes and
thus are more valuable as a historical source.
4.
Both the fresco and the tempera styles were used. The fresco style paintings are made on
wet plaster and the tempera style paintings are made on dry plaster.
5.
Kamasutra tells us that
painting was an established form of art and was studied in a systematic way.
Sculpture
1.
The Mathura, the Gandhara and
the Amaravati schools continued and new school developed at Benaras / Sarnath.
PP also became an important center.
2.
Statues were made of both
stone and metals and carved on caves, temples or free standing. The relief
sculpture showed scenes from religion as well as everyday life.
3.
Statues of Buddha were
built at Mathura and Sarnath. Buddha images now had more mudras and wore
transparent clothes. One bronze image of Buddha has been found from Sultanganj.
The Buddha images from east UP and Bihar show Buddha in a serene spiritual form
(as against the emphasis on the body as in the Gandhara form). The images had a
large and clear prabhamandal as against the Gandhara images where such a
feature was not prominent. The Buddhist relief sculpture made an attempt to
absorb the yaksha, gandharva, apsara traditions by depicting them on their
relief sculpture.
4.
Images of Jina tirthankaras
were also sculpted. Inscriptions at Udayagiri (Vidisha) and Kahaum (Gorakhpur)
talk about establishing tirthankara images.
5.
For the first time images of
Hindu gods were built. Sometimes these images were solo and sometimes the image
of the main god was accompanied with other minor gods. Vishnu images in human,
varah as well as anthromorphic forms. Shiva images came up in linga and
anthromorphic forms. Images were often more symbolic than representational
- thus the gods and goddesses may have multiple hands each holding a
symbol.
Architecture
Features
1.
Both religious and secular
character was visible though religious was more prominent.
2.
Temple architecture came up.
The first style was the nagara style.
3.
There was increasing use of
re-used or broken bricks. Eg. Bhita in Allahbad.
4.
Gupta period can be called the
golden age of sculpture and image making. But the same can't be said for
architecture because the temple architecture form (nagara) just emerged in this
phase and yet it peaked only in the post Gupta age. Thus while impressive
buddhist viharas and chaityas can be seen from the Gupta age, we have to wait
until the 8th century to see impressive temples.
Monuments
1.
The Buddhist university of
Nalanda came up in this age (5 cent AD). Its earliest structures were made of
bricks in this age.
2.
Jina temples were constructed
mostly in S India by Kadambas. The Hoskote (Bangalore) and Banavasi inscription
are examples which mention of land grants to such temples.
Temples
1.
The first brick and stone
temples were built in this age. They were of Nagara style.
2.
3.
The early temple was built on
a raised platform. There was a main deity room called garbha-griha then two rows of pillars leading to a
smaller room in the front of the garbha-griha called the mandapa. The mandapa was used to house the
devotees. The garbha-griha had a flat roof and a pole on top. The entire compound
was like and enclosed courtyard and
walled with gates for entry and exit. Temple walls
were plain but the doorways were profusely carved. Temples were generally built
from rock.
4.
Examples of such brick temples are
Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Paharpur (Rajshahi, Bangladesh), Sirpur (Raipur,
Chattisgarh), Vishnu temple @ Deogarh and Tighwa, Shiva temple @
Bhumra and Koh, Parvati temple @ Nachna. There are remains of a temple from
Dah-Parbatia in Assam.
5.
Later the influence of
Dravidian style also became visible. The temple had a plinth and a shikhara.
The pillars of these temples have capitals in the form of kalash. Deogarh temple is one such example with a vimana on top.
Caves
1.
The Buddhist caves include
Bagha caves, Mandargiri and Udaigiri. The pillars were richly carved and
on the stupa, a Buddha was carved. In the viharas, a shrine room was now
introduced.
2.
Shiva caves were built in
Elephanta.
Pillars
1.
The Mehrauli iron
pillar.
2.
The Bhitari stone pillar
inscription of Skandagupta.
Stupas
1.
The independent stupa building
activity lost momentum. Few examples are Dhamekh stupa @ Sarnath, Charsada,
Taxila. However, the stupa building in Buddhist caves continued.
Drama
1.
Two things are evident from
plays of this age. First, the higher classes speak Sanskrit whereas shudras and
women speak Prakrit. Second, none of them are tragedies.
2.
The Sanskrit drama Mrichchakatika (by Sudrak) was composed in this
age. It was the love story of a brahman in love with the daughter of a
courtesan.
3.
13 plays were written by
Bhasa.
Literature
1.
A different ornate style of
Sanskrit was developed during this period which was different from the old
simple Sanskrit. Greater emphasis was laid on kavya than on
prose. The audience of the kavya literature was mainly an urbanite and it
was played in goshtis and festivals. This literature was not for religious
purposes but focused on urban life.
2.
The transition from Prakrit to
Sanskrit in royal inscriptions was complete.
3.
Patanjali composed Mahabhashya and Panini composed Ashthadhyayi. Amarsimha composed Amarkosha. Kamandak wrote Nitisara and Vatsayan
wrote Kamasutra.
4.
The epics, the sutras etc.
were compiled in this age. Panchatantra too was written under Vakatakas.
Various commentaries on philosophical schools were written in this period.
5.
Plays were romantic comedies
and tragedy was avoided. Mrichchha katika was written by Shudrak and gives a
description of urban life. Mudrarakshasha was written by Vishakhadutta.
Dance & Music
1.
Gupta rulers patronized music
and dance and some rulers themselves were indulged in it. Samudragupta is
depicted as playing veena in some of his coins.
2.
The growth of temples led to
growth of dance and music as well. The institution of devdasis began.
Science & Technology
Metallurgy
1.
Bronze and iron technologies
advanced further as evident from the Mehrauli pillar and Buddha's bronze
statues.
Astronomy
1.
Aryabhatta came up with Aryabhattika in 5 cent AD. He also gave true
reason for the occurrence of eclipses and measured the circumference of earth.
He believed that earth was spherical and rotated on its own axis.
2.
Varhamira in 6 cent AD
explained the movement of some heavenly bodies in his book Brihad-Samhita.
3.
Previously the year was
divided into 3 units of 4 months each. Now it came to be divided into 12 equal
lunar
months. This was useful for agricultural operations. (Matharas of Odisha)
Mathematics
1.
Aryabhatta came up with zero,
three variable equations, concept of place value and the decimal system.
Medical Science
1.
Benaras school was a famous
school of surgery. Sushruta came from there.
2.
Dhanvantri was a great
physician and in the court of CGV.
3.
Palkapya wrote Hasti-Ayurveda. Sialhotra wrote Asva-Shastra.
4.
Nagarjuna discovered medicinal
properties of certain metals and herbal juices.
Chemical Science
1.
Varhamira and Kalidasa in
their respective works talk about the method of preparing various colored
pastes.
2.
The paintings in caves of
Ajanta and Bagha use rich colors.
Civil Engineering
1.
Brick temples began to be
constructed in the Nagara style.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Trade: Ship building industry flourished. Large ships
capable of carrying 500 persons were built.
An Estimate of Gupta Age
1.
Aryabhatta's and Varahmihira's
principles were not all indigenous. THey had also borrowed from the Romans and
the Greeks.
2.
Kalidasa's work are not a
symbol of any Hindu intellectual renaissance but they are merely a developed
form of an older style of writing. Even puranas and epics were composed in
earlier age, Gupta scholars merely compiled them.
3.
Bhakti movement in Vishnu and
Siva sects was not a new phenomenon. It was a mere continuation and
strengthening of an older strand.
Post-Gupta Age
1.
The growing feudal order in
the society limited inter regional mobility and gave a boost to the development
of regional cultural strands. Even the inscriptions are in all different
scripts such that even if we know Gupta brahmi script, it would be difficult to
read various regional inscriptions.
Science & Technology
Astronomy
1.
Brahmagupta in 7 cent AD in
his book Brahma-Sphuti-Siddhanta talked about various
astronomical instruments and suggests observation based astronomy.
2.
Bhaskaracharya in 12 cent AD
in his book Siddhanta-Shiromani explained
the motion of heavenly bodies.
Medical Science
1.
Vaghavatta in 8 cent AD
wrote Ashtanga-Hridaya which explained the functioning
of different parts of heart. Dhanvantri wrote Nighantu.
Chemical Science
1.
Indian chemists made great
progress in alchemy (due to tantric and magic influence). They were trying to
convert metals like iron, copper etc. into gold. Obviously they didn't succeed
in that but in the process they made many acids and bases.
Mathematics
1.
Bhaskaracharya's book had an
elaborate chapter on mathematics called Leelavati.
2.
Brahmagupta developed the
concept of cyclical quadrilateral i.e. sum of the the opposite angles of a
quadrilateral is 180 if all its vertices lie on a circle.
Metallurgy
1.
Large umber of fine bronze
sculptures were made specially of the natraja theme.
Civil Engineering
1.
Large embankments, canals etc.
were built in this period for irrigational purposes.
2.
Huge temples were also
built.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
1.
Agriculture
Technology: Irrigation increased,
use of animals for threshing and milling sugar and oil, persian wheel, and use
of one-humped camel in dry areas.
2.
Manufacturing
Technology: Cotton gin came up in
weaving.
3.
Military Technology: Leather and wooden stirrups were there but iron
stirrups, concave saddles and iron horse-shoe were absent. Horse-archery was
also absent. Use of fire-arms and mangonels was absent as
well.
Architecture
Features
1.
Religious.
2.
Court patronage.
3.
Rock cut, shaped or use of
permanent material.
4.
They didn't use arch, vault,
dome and mortar. So when they began to construct huge buildings there was no
way other than constructing tapering pyramidical tops or to install thick
pillars to support heavy beams. So larger and larger stones had to be used and
this necessitated the need for sculpting them for aesthetic appeal.
5.
Highly ornamented, elaborate,
massive and advanced technology.
6.
Multi-dimensional i.e. many
forms of architecture were pursued.
7.
Indigenous.
8.
The notion that the architect
must remain anonymous was belied in the temples of this age and the most famous
architect was Kokasa. Individual enterprise and style was encouraged but at the
same time texts were written on architecture (vastusastra) which led to some
standardization. It also proves that despite the brahmanical literary rhetoric,
architect caste was not held in low esteem in reality (otherwise why a brahman
would study architecture and write a text on it). Similarly shilpashastras were
written on sculpture. The sutradhara was an exalted position
and he supervised the construction activity while the stapathi was
the master builder. Some of them even received land grants and were held as
belonging to the visvakarma lineage.
Styles
1.
The dravida style temples: It was prevalent in the south of Krishna river. In the
phase 1, the main feature was building pyramidical shikhara above
the garbhgriha (chief deity room). The shikhara had a
dome at the top and this entire structure was called vimana. Later in phase
2, in front of the vimana was a pillared hall with elaborately cared
pillars and flat roof called mandapa. A
circumambulatory path was provided around the garbhgriha and images of multiple
gods were carved along this passage. The entire structure was walled and had
lofty gates called gopuram. In phase 3,
additional structures began to come up in the temple complex and they grew
horizontally and became more massive. Ajanta and Ellora are examples as well.
2.
The nagara style was prevalent north of Vindhyas. It consists of (a) a square elevated
platform with a number of projections in the middle of each side giving it a
cruciform shape, and (b) in the later age the flat roofed temples gave way to a
shikhara (which reflected the temple's plan) on the main shrine and smaller
shikharas on the secondary shrines.
3.
The rath temple style: In the rath temples, entire rock was cut and shaped
from outside to give it the shape of a temple. Beautiful images were then
carved on it.
4.
The Chalukyas of
Badami patronized the vesara style (prevalent
between the Krishna and the Vindhyas) which was a fusion of the dravidian style
and the nagara style. Such examples are found @ Aihole and Pattadakal. It was
prevalent from Vindhyas to Krishna. Like dravidian style it had a vimana, a
mandapa and in some cases an additional open mandapa. Like nagar style the
vimana was heavily sculpted. Like nagara style its circumambulatory path was
open. Like nagara style the outer walls had chariots carved out on them. Other
examples are Jaina temples in Dharwad and Kalleshwar temple in Kukanoor
(Hyderabad).
Caves
1.
The Pallavas: They built the cave temples of 4th generation with
elaborate pillars and ornamented entries. This was under the Mahindra style
(640-74 AD ) and the Mamalla style (640-74 AD). The cave pillars are square
from bottom and top and octagonal in the middle. These caves are less complex
than those @ Ajanta and Ellora.
2.
The Chalukyas of
Badami: They too patronized cave
architecture. 4th generation caves were cut.
Ellora Caves
1.
Political Dimension: They represent different dynasties. The famous
Kailashnath temple was built by Rashtrakutas.
2.
Religious Dimension: They represent different different religions. Caves
are there from Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu traditions. Even in Hindu tradition,
they represent multiple gods and multiple forms of the same god as well. The
Buddhist cages represent the last in the tradition of Buddhist cave cutting. It
shows a development over previous styles. They are multi-storeyed and highly
ornamented. The Kailashnath temple contains images of Shiva pantheon as
well as Vishnu.
3.
Architectural
Features Dimension: They represent multiple
styles of architecture. The famous Kailashnath temple has a
superstructure in Dravidian style. It is multi-storeyed and highly ornamented.
Temples
1.
The Ganga rulers of
Odisha: They patronized temples
between 8-12 cent AD. The Lingaraja temple @ Bhubneswar, Jagannath temple @
Puri and Sun temple @ Konark were all built during this period. The Odisha
temples have pyramidical shikharas on their mandaps as well. They also
typically have chariots carved out on their outer walls. Moreover the main
shikhara has multiple smaller shikharas at the top. There is a gate in each
direction. The sculpture of the Konark temple shows clear evidence of tantric
influence like the temples of Khajuraho.
2.
The Solanki rulers
of Gujarat: They patronized many
temples in Mt. Abu. The Dilawara and Tejpala temples are most famous Abu
temples. White marble was used in construction. They also built the
Karnameru temple @ Anhilwara and Rudramallah temple @ Siddhpur. The temples of
Gujarat are immensely rich and were studded with semi precious and precious
stones. Such a lavish temple building was possible only due to immense prosperity
brought by the trade. It also reflected the high level of skills mastered by
the guilds of sculptors in Gujarat. A characteristic feature of this style was
the present of bawris in the basement for water storage.
3.
The Chandela rulers
of Bundelkhand: They patronized the
Khajuraho temples. These temples are built of granite and red sandstone.
Kanderiya temple @ Khajuraho is the only temple in Khajurao to have
shikhara (reflecting Dravidian influence). The central Indian temples are known
for their extensive use of richly carved pillars. Each mandapa has thin
shikharas. The khajurao temples are in panchyatan style i.e. there are smaller
temples on the 4 corners of the plinth. All temples are built on a plinth.
These temples clearly show the influence of tantricism.
4.
The Pallavas: Their architecture was divided into the Mahindra style (610-40 AD), the Mamalla style (640-74 AD), the Rajsimha style (674-800 AD) and the
Nandivarman style (800-875 AD). Cave temples called mandaps were cut in Mahindra style. They were
essentially chaityas and viharas of 4th generation. Examples are @ Pallavaram
and Mahendrabad. In the Mamalla style, rath temples were cut in addition to the
cave temples which became more ornamented. There are 5 Pandava rathas. Examples
of both styles are @ Mahabalipuram. In the Rajsimha style, cave and ratha
temples were discontinued and independent dravidian style temples emerged.
Examples are the Shore temple @ Mahabalipuram and Kanchi. In the Nandivarman
style, the Pallava power was on a decline and this was reflected in the temples
as well which became smaller and less elaborate. Examples are @ Kanchi and
Gudimallam.
5.
The Cholas: They picked up on the the dravidian style and took
it to new heights. The early Chola temples were relatively small and superb in
simplicity. One example is the Narttamalai temple of 9th cent - a free standing
temple facing some rock cut caves. From 11th cent AD the vimanas (pyramidical
shaped) and gopurams (which gradually overwhelmed the shikharas) became
massive. The garbhgriha was entered by one or more massive mandaps with
multiple pillars. The balanced proportion of the structure gave it aesthetic
quality. The temple complex grew horizontally as numerous smaller structures
came up. This was linked to the military victories of the Chola kings. Examples
are @ Padupattu & Tanjore. After there decline we can see that no attempt
was made to maintain the grandeur of the temples and this is a reflection of
the economic decline which had set in.
6.
Kerala: Here the temples were made of wood instead of stone
and many temples were circular in form - the circular sanctum being surrounded
by concentrically arranged areas.
7.
The Chalukyas of
Badami: The Chalukyan temples
evolved from Gupta style and their architecture developed into the Vesara style which is a fusion of dravidian style
and nagara style. Examples are some temples @ Aihole & Patdakal.
The Durga temple @ Aihole is a continuation of the Buddhist chaitya plan.
Aihole had megalithic stone worship centers in the vicinity and thus emerged as
a sacred town. Cave temples are located @ Badami. The Ladkhan temple @ Aihole
has a flat roof and a pillared mandapa. The comparison of plans of Ladkhan
temple and the Virupaksha temple show us the rapidity of the change in architectural
styles.
8.
The Hosyals: They built elaborate temples in Halebid,
Somnathpura and Belur. Their temples are known for excellence in relief
sculpture. Earlier they just picked up from the Chalukya style. Gradually they
became more ornate (they began to use soapstone rather than sandstone which is
softer). The ground plan of these temples was no longer rectangle but star
shaped or polygonal and the whole complex was built on a raised platform. There
was not so much emphasis (as in Chola temples) on shikharas and gopurams and
thus the overall temples appear 'flat'. On the temple walls elaborate sculpting
is done using animal and floral motifs, musicians, dancers, battle scenes, and
religious literature events. The star shaped plan provided more space for
sculpting. The wide, circular pillars are a distinctive feature.
Sculpture
Temple Relief
1.
The temple walls were carved
with images of gods and goddesses and their attendants, yaksha and yakshis,
kings and queens etc.
2.
They show scenes of wars,
love, dance and music. The Tiruparantik form of Diva is popular in the
Brihadeshwara temple @ Tanjore.
3.
In N India the sculpture @
Khajurao, Odisha shows clear tantric influences. The sculptures are exquisitely
materialistic in appearance an reflect the contemporary society. We can see the
cosmetics, clothing style, hair styles etc. of women in the society.
4.
The Pallava sculpture was
inspired more from the Buddhist tradition of Amaravati school and remained
linear and avoided over ornamentation - something which was present in the
Chalukyan sculpture.
Independent Sculpture
1.
The bronze dancing figure of
Shiva i.e. Natraja became a popular theme under Cholas and Rashtrakutas. The
dancing Siva has 2 types - angry and pacific symbolizing the creation and
destruction of universe. The snake is the ornament and Ganga in his hair locks.
Two back hands hold a flame and a drum while the front hands are in abhaya
mudra and one points down towards feet.
2.
The bronze images used
lost-wax technique. These figures were solid from inside unlike the N Indian
sculpture which was hollow from inside.
3.
Images of kings and queens
were also built in this period and placed in the temples.
4.
World's largest monolithic
statue is the Jina statue of Gomteswar is present at Sravana Belgola
(Hassan, Karnataka).
5.
In S India, there was a
tradition of hero stones or viragals. They hold
a sword in right hand, bow / shield in left and arrows on shoulder.
Usually there is an inscription recording the deeds of the hero.
6.
In N India the images lack the
grandeur of the Gupta age - probably because now they were mostly of gods and
goddesses to be used mostly for worship.
Painting
1.
The Chalukyas of
Badami: The cave paintings of
Ellora and Elephanta belong to this period and contain themes of secular
nature, brahmanical religion, Buddhism as well as Jainism (Ellora). One cave
painting shows Pulakesin II receiving a Persian ambassador.
2.
The Rashtrakutas: They continued the Ellora and Elephanta cave
paintings. Kailash temple was built by Krishna I.
Dance & Music
1.
Temples played a vital role
through the institution of devdasis, employing dancers, musicians, singers etc.
and also through multiple festivals from the Pallava period onwards. The
devdasis initially also composed poems and performed some temple rituals which
were related to the idea of the special power embedded in women (a S Indian
original concept) and rituals and dance were an expression of it. But gradually
this was later misused to providing entertainment to influential priests and
persons.
2.
First books on music began to
come up. Narad wrote Sangeetam Karanand, Someshwar wrote Manollas.
Literature
1.
While Sanskrit was the
language of the elites, a remarkable feature was the growth in literature of
regional languages. By the end of this age, regional languages had overtaken
sanskrit.
2.
The literature of this age
also mentions brahmanical rituals less frequently indicating growth of bhakti.
Erotic mysticism also finds its way into the literature of the age reflecting
the influence of bhakti. Bilhana's Chaurpanchasika and Jayadeva's Geet Govinda
are examples.
3.
Medium of instruction of
formal language was Sanskrit which shows its growing distance from day to day
life. Professional education was provided by the guilds. But in some
professions we do find sanskrit works being written indicating some confluence.
Jaina Literature
1.
Sanskrit also began to be widely used by Jainas and
Buddhists by this time. The jainas were prolific in writing biographies,
chronicles of kings and courts and texts on religion. Hemchandra
(12th cent) and Merutunga (14th cent) were famous scholars. An interesting
aspect was writing stories on Rama from a jaina perspective.
2.
The jains insisted on literacy and thus preserved and
re-copied their texts as a treasury in the jaina temples. These developed into
impressive libraries. By now a new sharda script was used which was closer to
devanagari than brahmi.
Sanskrit
1.
In most sanskrit
works of the age we find lack of original and innovative thinking. They were
merely commentaries on old subjects from epics etc. This age also lacks
important texts on politics like Arthasastra and Nitisara. Focus was more on
linguistic proficiency. The spread of Sanskrit grew in S India along with the
spread of Brahmans and because of the proximity to kings much of the literature
has political motives.
2.
There was a trend
of growing ornate style in Sanskrit championed by Banabhatta. This was
specially because of the royal patronage scholars used to receive. This period
witnessed the growth of kavya as well as grammar.
3.
There was a
growing trend of writing histriographies like Kalhana and Bilhana (Vikramankdevcharit - a historical epic but written
to please a king who had usurped the throne from his elder brother). Attempts
were made to provide vanshavalis where descent was traced from mythological
lines.
4.
A new style known
as "shlesha style" emerged. An example is Shrutikirti's Dwisandhan
which when read from left to right tells the story of Rama and when read from
right to left tells the story of Kauravs.
5.
Brahmagupta,
Bhaskaracharya, Vaghavatta and Kalhana wrote in this age. Sanskrit
dictionary was composed in this era by Amarsimha (Amarkosha).
Important plays were Mudrarakshah by Vishakhdatta, Bal Ramayan and Bal Bharat
by Rajshekhar.
6.
Sanskrit texts on
various professions like krishiparashar, shilpashastras, vastushastras,
veterinary sciences etc. were written reflecting social priorities.
Regional Languages
1.
Prakrit: It gradually became very heavy and lost out
to Pali and Sanskrit and even Jaina scholars began to write in Sanskrit while
buddhist scholars in Pali.
2.
Tamil --> Alvars and Naynar saints popularized
it from 6-9 AD. Their writings were collectively compiled in 12th cent and
called Tirumurais. Tamil literature witnessed great
development. Sometime the subjects were taken from Sanskrit works like Kamban
wrote Ramayna in Chola period but it was not merely a translation of the
Valmiki ramayna as the style, treatment of gender and even the narrative was
varied according to the local tradition. Thus he treats Ravan in a much more
sympathetic way than Valmiki. In the Pallava age the tamil poems contain rich
description of general country life as well as the town life in Kaveripattnam.
Confidence in Tamil can be seen in its use along with Sanskrit in inscriptions.
3.
Kannada
-->Amoghavarsha
(Rashtrakuta king)wrote the first work in Kannada poetry. It was patronized by
Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Hosyals. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna (the 3 Kannada
jewels) wrote in this age.
4.
Apbhramsha --> The Rashtrakutas patronized it and
many poets in this language lived in their courts. The doha style of writing
began to come up in this age and specially popularized by the bhakti movement.
The bhakti saints also popularized other languages like Odiya, Bengali.
5.
Telugu --> It was patronized by Rashtrakutas,
Chalukyas and Hosyals. Mahabharata was written under Chalukyan kings.
Vijaynagar
Architecture
Features
1.
Religious as well
as secular.
2.
Court patronage.
3.
Rock cut, shaped
or use of permanent material.
4.
Highly ornamented,
elaborate, massive and advanced technology.
5.
Multi-dimensional
i.e. many forms of architecture were pursued.
6.
In the 14th
century, it was influenced by deccani style of Chalukyas and
Rashtrakutas. During 15th century, a typical Vijaynagar style called provida style emerged. Basically it was an
advanced version of the dravidian style. In 17th cent, the nayak style emerged
(nayaks were the feudatories of Vijaynagar kings).
Temples
1.
In the provida
style, the structures of the chief god and goddess were separated and the
goddess structure was called shrine of the "Amma". A new
structure called kalyan mandap came up which was used for the ceremonial
union of the chief god and the goddess. A thousand pillar hall was created in
the temple complex for the devotees. The gopurams became bigger and more
ornamented.
2.
Examples are
Viruprakash temple and Hazaraswami temple @ Hampi.
3.
The nayak style
temples were bigger and more ornamented. Example is Meenakshi temple @
Madurai.
Monuments
1.
Palaces, queens'
baths, stables etc. were constructed. Example is Lotus palace of
Krishnadevrai.
Sculpture
1.
Secular sculpture
developed with bronze images made of kings and queens.
